IDonT

In my opinion, Mongol military organization was superior to the Romans.

Organization and tactics of the Mongols:

Numerous accounts of the Mongols typically call them a "horde" as if they were merely a mob of savage, milling horsemen. Nothing could be further from the truth: the term "horde", in fact, derives from the Mongol "ordu", simply meaning camp.

The tumen (meaning 10,000) decimal system and leadership The armies of Genghis Khan were organized by tens, hundreds, thousands, and tens of thousands, and each segment had commanders, who were chosen by proven ability, not because of their relations to the Khan.

In reality they were tightly organized troops, parceled into units of ten, and from that basic building block, grouped into larger formations roughly corresponding to regiments and other units, finally culminating in the distinct field force of 10,000 horsemen, the famous Mongol tumen (similar to a modern day Division or a Roman Legion). Several of these divisional equivalents were grouped or subdivided as the situation demanded. Coordination was provided by designated unit leaders, with signalling done via horns, smokes, flags etc. Whatever the exact mix or sub-division deployed, it usually spelled bad news for their opponents.

Swarm/encirclement tactics and massed firepower in the field - Mongol tactics were marked by speed, surprise and massive mobility. They approached in widely separated columns, both to ease logistics as well as to gain maneuvering room. Once they had isolated their target, the tumans deployed in wide sweeps, converging on the enemy from several directions. Upon contact the Mongols played cat and mouse, standing-off while devastating opponents with massed arrow fire, or charging in close only to veer off while discharging yet another vicious rain of shafts. Opponents who took the bait and gave pursuit were quickly cut off and liquidated. The constant rain of arrows, the converging swarms of charges and probes, all carried out by the encircling Mongols, were usually enough to "soften up" an enemy. Typically the opposing force broke and then the deadliest butchery began. As is well known, a force is most vulnerable in retreat, and the Mongols were ruthless.

Flexible tactics -- ruses and ambushes- The Mongols were not rigid in their thinking, nor did they adhere to European notions of "chivalry". They deployed a wide variety of large or small tactical subdivisions as the action demanded, and feigned retreat to set traps for pursuers, conducted ambushes, and constantly probed and raided their enemies. Unsentimental in their approach to warfare, they did whatever it took to win.

Mongol siege warfare and Logistics - The Mongol logistical system was distinguished by its mobility and practicality. Most columns or tumen were self-suficient in the short run. The Mongol armies lived off the land extensively -- bad news indeed for hapless civilians in their path. Heavier equipment was brought up by well-organized supply trains. Local lumber, labor, and other resources were pressed into service to feed the needs of the advancing tumen.

Primarily a cavalry force, the Mongols made wide use of captured or hired siege engineers to overcome fortifications. A supply train hauled a variety of siege engines in the wake of the touman sweep, and these were deployed against cities. The Mongols were unsentimental and used every trick in the book, from sapper tunnels to treachery. Once a city had fallen it was subjected to wholesale massacre and pillaging. Cities that surrendered had an easier time, but regardless of how the city or area submitted, certain outcomes were still the same. The Mongol era was characterized by supply trains hauling booty to their core homeland in the steppes.

Mongol terror - Mongol terror and atrocity was notable even for the 13th century. They employed a deliberate policy of terror. It was not unusual for them to round up the civilian population of a city or area and drive the hapless victims forward against an opponent as a human herd, forcing the opponent to make the anguished choice of firing upon or killing its own people, Contemporary accounts speak of mass mountains of human bones, or of vast areas burned to rubble, devoid of all life. Long before Imperial Japan used the phrase, Mongol operations in many areas could indeed be classified as a "Three All" policy- "burn all, kill all, destroy all." And yet such terror at times also had a rational end in sight -- to intimidate opponents further down the line into surrendering or making concessions. In a cruel age, where few nations or tribes won prizes for humane behavior, the Mongols added their own distinct stamp.

Weapons and equipment of the Mongols: the Mongols deployed three general weapons, bows, scimitars and lances. Of these the most important was the dreaded Mongol Bow. Some scholars show two types of bows, one for long range markmanship and the other for shorter range work. Arrows were of different "calibers" for tactical purposes, ranging from warheads capable of penetrating heavy armor, to an assortment of longer range, more specialized heads like "fire" arrows. Like many Asiatic bows, the Mongol bow was composite, made from glue, horn, sinew, wood and bamboo. Lances and scimitars were used for close range encounters within cities or against dispersed enemies in the field. The central weapon however was the bow, with a range of over 200 yards.

Morale and makeup of the Mongol warrior and their mounts: The Mongol was an exceedingly tough warrior. Reared on the harsh steppes of their native land, they were generally a short people, spending hours on horseback from childhood. They were used to privation and hardship, and were extremely dedicated. The Mongol was always seemed to identify with his horse -- the equally tough, hardy steppe pony. They were inseparable, the horse not only providing the means of transport into battle, but being very important to the Mongol steppe economy, providing milk, blood, and meat for food, hair and skin for clothing and tents, and glue and sinews for bow and arrow making. On the march, the Mongol warrior carried a string of ponies, rotating them as remounts to keep up the momentum of the advance. In a tight spot the Mongol would bleed selected ponies, using their blood to assuage his hunger. This extremely lean style of operation contributed to the rapidity of Mongol maneuvers. Typically, the Mongol was practical about his mounts and would discard or slaughter them as demanded by the situation without sentiment.